If contradictions drive many of Haygood’s stories, so too assumptions among Black Americans that military service would lead to expanded civil rights, a way to prove their mettle as citizen-soldiers and be rewarded accordingly for their sacrifices. Such expectations were not new. During World War I, scholar and civil rights activist W.E.B. Du Bois applauded Black participation in the global conflict as a means for attaining full citizenship. Meritocracy in the armed forces, so the argument went, would extend to civilian society. Perhaps unsurprisingly in retrospect, Du Bois would be disappointed by the “betrayal” of an American government and society all too eager to reinforce the Jim Crow system of oppression at the war’s end.