Rhawn Gabriel Joseph, Ph.D.
Key Words: Consciousness, Sexuality, Evolution, Chimpanzees, Bonobos, Australopithecus, H. habilis, H. erectus,
SEX, BREASTS, BUTTOCKS, THE BIG BRAIN AND HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS
As first proposed and detailed by Joseph (1992a, 1993, 1996, 2000a,b), the evolution of human consciousness is directly related to the evolution of human female sexuality and full time sexual availability signaled by the evolution of a permanent enlargement of the female breasts and buttocks, and her ability to chose her sex partners. Female sexual choice served to weed out the most brutal, frightening, and less intelligent males who were denied opportunities to breed, whereas continual sexuality receptivity motivated male possessiveness and a willingness to provide her and her offspring meat and protection on a full-time basis, all of which led to and corresponded with the establishment of a semi-permanent home base and the first hearths for the cooking of food. Because food which is cooked can be easily chewed the jaw decreased in size, which, coupled with improved nutrition and female sexual preference for the more intelligent males who would provide for her, enabled the cranium and the brain to increase in size. With the evolution of the big brain and human intelligence, modern human consciousness also emerged--a direct consequence of the first sexual revolution and the liberation of female sexuality.
THE FEMALE IN HEAT
Sexually, the human female is unique. Unlike all other (noncaptive) females, she is continuously sexually receptive and can have sexual intercourse at any time, morning, noon, or night. Whereas other females of the animal kingdom have sex almost exclusively when in estrus or "heat" the human female can have sexual intercourse 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.
Although a variety of claims have been made about "pygmy chimpanzees" (bonobos), the fact is, since 1950, almost all studies on bonobos are based on observations of their behavior in captivity. As such, claims about bonobo sexual behavior are in fact reports of abnormal behavior of abnormal animals raised or imprisoned in grossly abnormal environments. A variety of abnormal self-stimulatory and group-stimulatory behaviors are common in captive animals, and abnormal sexual conduct tells us nothing about the sexual behavior of normal animals living in a normal environment. However, even an abnormal bonbo female cannot have sexual intercourse on a full time basis, no does she continually signal her sexual receptivity as is characteristic of the human female.
The human female is the sexiest female on the planet, and she continually signals this fact as she has evolved an enlarged derriere and prominent breasts which remain swollen even when she is not pregnant, lactating, or sexually aroused. Those swollen breasts, and posterior protuberance, her buttocks, have been driving males wild with sexual desire for over half a million years.
In many respects the human female's sexual behavior is similar to other primates and mammals when they enter estrus or "heat." Like other female animals who enter estrus the human female (young women in particular depending on cultural restraints) sometimes flaunts and aggressively advertises her sexual availability (Joseph 1985, 1993, 2000a,b). And like other social primates, she is capable of experiencing multiple orgasms and enjoying multiple sex partners, one after another. In fact, she is most likely to seek sex including with men outside her primary relationship, when she is ovulating and likely to get pregnant (Buss, 2003; Gold & Burt, 1978; Matteo & Rissman, 1984; Udry & Morris, 1968, 1970; Wolfe, 1991); just like females of other species.
A female in heat, behaves like a female in heat regardless of species, simply because biologically sexuality serves a single purpose: to attract numerous male sex partners which insures she becomes pregnant. Moreover, be it female cat, dog, wolf, or chimpanzee, all possess basically identical brain structures which mediate female sexuality, i,e, the amygdala and hypothalamus of the limbic system which is sexually differentiated (Joseph, 1990, 1992a, 1994, 1996, 2000a). That is, there is a male vs female limbic system.
The human female shares almost identical sexual traits and tendencies with numerous species, especially social primates, the chimpanzee in particular (de Waal, 2007; Eibl-Eisbesfeldt, 2007; Ford & Beach, 1951; Joseph, 2000a,b; Symons 1981; Wickler, 1973). This commonalty is a consequence of her primate/mammalian evolutionary heritage and the fact that female humans and female primates possess a "female" limbic system. It is the ancient limbic system which mediates love, and the four Fs: Feeding, Fighting, Fear, and Sexual behavior.
And yet, there are obvious physical sexual differences between human females and other female animals. Specifically, the adult human female has swollen breasts and an enlarged buttocks which signal her continual sexually receptive physiology and sexual availability. Other species of female may develop swollen breasts or genitals only when they are maximally sexually receptive, that is, when they are in estrus or heat; whereas for much of the year these sex organs are flat and hidden. Among other social primates, the posterior anatomy only becomes enlarged or changes color when the female is in estrus and most fertile: the purpose is to attract sex partners. However, because the human female is continually sexually receptive, she continually advertises her sexual condition (Joseph 1985, 2000a,b).
It was probably not until around 700,000 to 500,000 years B.P.,
during the latter stages of Homo erectus evolution, that human females became sexual receptivity at all times and evolved those secondary sexual
characteristics to signal her availability, i.e. the permanently swollen buttocks
and breasts (Joseph, 2000a,b). Likewise, it may have been around 500,000 years ago that the human brain significantly increased in size, which resulted in an increase in the size of the female pelvis, thereby resulting in a restructuring of the musculature such that the buttocks increased in size. Moreover, because the female legs became wider apart at the pelvis, this caused her to wiggle and shake her buttocks when she walks, thus drawing increased male attention to her enlarged butt.
An increase in the size of the brain also endowed the human female with the cognitive and creative capacity to artificially emphasize and exaggerate her sexuality by applying natural pigments to her face and body, such as rouge obtained from red ocher (Joseph 2000a,b). Thus, rouge and cosmetics may have first come into fashion around 500,000 years ago, and which served the same purpose as employed by present day females: to mimic the stereotypical colorful signs of estrus typical of other species when in heat, and to sexually signal and attract potential mates (Joseph, 2000a,b).
Full time sexual availability as signaled by an increase in the size of the buttocks and breasts, also corresponds to and most likely lead to the establishment of the first home bases; that is, semi-permanent dwellings where males cohabitated with females who could provide them with sex in exchange for meat and protection.
CHIMPANZEES, AUSTRALOPITHECUS AND H. HABILIS
The human female shares numerous sexual, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral characteristics with other species, the chimpanzee in particular (Bygott,1979; de Waal, 2007; Goodall, 1986, 1990, 1996, 2010; Itani & Suzuki, 1967; McGrew, 1981; Tanner, 1981, 1987; Stanford, 1998). For example, although there is considerable variation, the sexual behavior of the female human (Gold & Burt, 1978; Matteo & Rissman, 1984; Udry & Morris, 1968, 1970; Wolfe, 1991) and the female chimpanzee (Fedigan, 1992; Michael, 1972) increases at the time of ovulation, that is, at midcycle; though in humans there is a second peak just before and after menstruation (Fisher, 1973). Moreover, human and group living (multi-male/female) hominoid females are capable of experiencing multiple orgasms (e.g., Allen, and Lemmon, 1981; Burton, 1971; Chevalier-Skolnikoff, 1974; Goldfoot 1977; Masters & Johnson, 1966; Michael et al., 1974) and can have sex with multiple partners. Multiple sex partners ensures she will become pregnant, and multiple orgasms reward her with increasing pleasure for her behavior.
These and other female chimpanzee/human commonalties appear to be due to a common genetic and evolutionary heritage and the sexual differentiation of the limbic system (Joseph 1990, 1992a, 1994, 1996). It is this ancestral hominoid heritage and limbic system commonalties which explains not only the human female's capacity for multiple orgasms (Joseph 2000a,b), but the fact that her "monthly rhythm of ovogenesis, ovulation, estrogen and progesterone secretion, uterine stimulation, and menstrual bleeding follows the basic primate pattern" (Beach, 1974, p. 356). Because they share common ancestors and a limbic system organized in a "female" pattern, female chimps and humans are sexually similar.
The human female sometimes behaves similar to a female chimpanzee in heat and this is because our d"human" ancestors of around 5 million years ago, were essentially apes. Indeed, given these primate origins and commonalties, the initial evolution of the human females' unique sexuality is therefore best understood from a pongid perspective, beginning with Australopithecus whose social life was probably more ape-like than human-like.
Since Australopithecus was more ape-like than human, it can also be inferred that these pre-human females were extremely sexually promiscuous and probably had sex up to fifty times a day when they entered estrus, as is typical of female chimps. Like other social apes, our pre-human female ancestors probably had sex with every desirable and high status male of the troop, and she likely snuck off to an adjacent troop where she would then enjoy a romantic vacation by again having sex up to fifty times a day with every desirable and high status male-- a common behavior of female chimps.
THE HOMINOID TO HOMINID TRANSITION
It was perhaps as recently as 5 million years ago that the ancestral lines leading to chimps and humans diverged from a common ancestor (Sibley & Alhquist, 1984; Takahata et al., 1995) with the first pre-humans, Ardipithecus ramidus ("ground ape"), and Australopithecus, emerging soon thereafter. However, these were still basically apes.
Ardipithecus ramidus (the remains of which are 4.4 million years old) Australopithecus anamesis (who emerged 4 million years B.P.), A. aferensis (3.6 million B.P.), A. africanus (3 million years B.P.), A. garhi (2.5 million B.P.), and early Homo habilis (2.2 million B.P), possessed forelimbs or hindlimbs which were more ape-like than human-like (McHenry & Berger, 1998; White 1994; Wood, 1994).
Australopithecus was especially ape-like in regard to head and brain size (Conroy, 1998). Also ape-like were their small semi-circular canals (inner ear), robust body build, conical chest, and curved feet (Fleagle, 1988; Howells, 1997; Johanson, 1980; Johanson & Shreeve, 1989; Leakey, 1994; White et al., 1994). Australopithecus, like chimpanzees, climbed and probably nested in trees (Fleagle, 1988; Stern & Susman, 1983; Wood, 1994).
Although Australopithecus (aferensis/africanus) had acquired the ability to walk on two legs and was well on the way to becoming human (e.g. Howells, 1997; Johanson, 1980; Johanson, & Shreeve, 1989; Leakey, 1981), this pre-human was built like a chimpanzee, and retained chimp-like capabilities and limitations, including an ape-like maturational growth rate (Beynon & Dean, 1988). Similar ape-like traits were characteristic of early H. habilis (McHenry and Berger, 1998).
Sexually, these early hominids probably behaved no different from group living apes, such as chimpanzees. Likewise, the social life of Australopithecus and Homo habilis was probably more ape-like than human-like (Joseph 2000b).
Although the baboon has been proposed as a model for early hominid behavior (Devore & Washburn, 1963; Leakey, 1994), the baboon brain is only about half the size of an Australopithecus brain (Tobias, 1971), and common ancestors for humans and baboons diverged almost 30 million years ago (Sibley & Alhquist, 1984).
By contrast, the common ancestors for chimps and humans diverged 5 million year ago and the chimpanzee brain (395-410 cc) is just slightly smaller than the average Australopithecus brain (375-440 cc). That our early ancestors, Australopithecus and early H. habilis, behaved and acted in a manner similar to chimpanzees can also be inferred based on present-day human DNA which is almost identical to chimpanzee DNA. Chimpanzees and modern humans display a 99% homologous sequence identity in nucleotide base pair sequence organization, and 98.4% of activated/coded human and chimpanzee DNA is identical (Goodman et al., 1990). There are very few genes in the chimp genome whose counterparts cannot be found often in the same exact location in the human genome, though it is also apparent that chromosomes 4, 9, and 12 are configured somewhat differently. Those few genes that have been inverted include AF4, which sits on chromosome 4 and which codes for a transcription factor related to leukemia in humans (reviewed in Gibbons, 1998). By contrast, primate genes which have disappeared from the human genome include a few silent "satellite" introns (non-coded genes) which, in the chimp genome, are adjacent to the telomere (Royale et al. 1994). The telomere is a structure which caps the chromosome. These chimpanzee introns appear to have shifted to a new position within the human chromosome, which is a common behavior of episoms, transposons, and plasmids. In so doing, they likely became exons and thus activated, and in so doing possibly promoting the transition from hominoid to hominid.
Given these close genetic similarities, it can thus be inferred that genetically Australopithecus and H. habilis were probably almost DNA- identical to chimps and behaved similarly.
Therefore, given these genetic, physical, and other similarities, and the fact that early H. habilis also possessed ape-like characteristics, the modern chimpanzee is thus an excellent evolutionary model for early hominid behavior (McGrew, 1981; Tanner, 1987), including female sexuality (Joseph 2000a,b; Symons 1981). In fact, "humans" remained basically ape-like until around 2 million years B.P., and only became increasingly human-like following the emergence of Homo erectus.
AUSTRALOPITHECUS - H. HABILIS SOCIAL-SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
Like modern day chimpanzees (e.g., Bygott, 1979; de Waal, 2007; Goodall, 1986, 1990, 1996, 2010; Helte & Marquardt, 1989; Itani & Suzuki, 1967; Nishida, 1990; Wrangham, Clark & Isairye-Basuta, 1992), Australopithecus and H. habilis probably lived in troops of up to 50 individuals, and the males may have controlled and patrolled large territories dozens of miles in diameter.
Like chimpanzees, it can also be assumed Australopithecus / H. habilis employed elaborate vocalizations and facial, hand, arm, and body gestures to communicate. They likely developed long lasting sibling and mother-infant relationships, and used a variety of strategies for achieving dominance and forming coalitions. Thus, Australopithecines and H. habilis may have greeted their own kind with hugs, pats, and kisses, would hold and shake hands, engage in long periods of mutual grooming, seek reassurance by embracing, and were probably willing to risk their lives to help family members who were in distress or danger.
As is characteristic of chimpanzees (e.g., de Waal, 2007; Goodall, 1986, 1990, 1996, 2010; Nishida, 1990; Wrangham et al., 1992), female Australopithecus / H. habilis may have spent considerable time socializing with kin and engaging in prolonged child care with mother-son and especially mother-daughter bonds lasting a lifetime. Incessant mutual vocalizing and prolonged daily food gathering activities were probably characteristic, especially between mothers and daughters.
By contrast male Australopithecines and H. habilis may have been more semi-independent, though like chimps (e.g., Bygott, 1972; de Waal, 2007; Goodall, 1986, 1990, 1996, 2010; Hamburg, 1971; Nishida, 1990), they likely formed coalitions, as well as hunting or raiding parties in which they would kill other animals or hominids from adjacent troops; and, on occasion, each other.
According to Dart (1949), Australopithecines "were confirmed killers; carnivorous creatures that seized others by violence, battered them to death, tore apart their broken bodies, dismembered them limb from limb, and slaking their ravenous thirst with the hot blood of the pitiful victims and greedily devouring their writhing flesh."
Although Dart's conclusions have been challenged, as is now well known, male chimps not uncommonly engage in violent, murderous and even cannibalistic interactions with neighboring as well as other troop member (Bygott, 1972, 1979; de Waal, 2007; Goodall, 1986, 1990, 1996, 2010; Lancaster, 1978). Like modern humans, gangs of male chimpanzees engage in surprise attacks on neighboring colonies, beating and killing the old, infirm, and infants alike, including former friends; even drinking their blood. That Australopithecus behaved in an identical manner, thus, should not be surprising.
However, after a successful hunt, males may have offered females choices pieces of meat, in exchange for sex. Moreover, less successful males may have begged for scraps of meat, which they either consumed or also offered to estrus females.
Australopithecus / H. habilis as well as H. erectus were sexually dimorphic, with the female weighing half as much as the male (Howell, 1997; Johanson, & Shreeve, 1989; Leakey, 1994). All larger sized primates are sexually dimorphic and tend to live in multi-male, multi-female groups (Fedigan, 1992), with males competing for access to estrus females who may mate with numerous males. By contrast, smaller and similar sized primates are more likely to be monogamous (Fedigan, 1992).
Hence, we can assume that monogamous sexual relations had not yet been established with the emergence of these pre-humans. Rather, as with chimps, Australopithecus / H. habilis females were probably highly promiscuous, and males may have only occasionally formed temporary consort relations so long as the female remained in estrus.
AUSTRALOPITHECUS /HOMO HABILIS FEMALE SEXUALITY
As is common among chimps, it can be assumed that colonies of Australopithecus / H. habilis may have been ruled by dominant males or male coalitions. Females and subordinate males probably would bow and grunt submissively or turn and offer their backside for mounting when confronted by dominate males.
Like other social primates (e.g. Bygott, 1979; de Waal, 2007; Goodall, , 1996, 2010; Itani & Suzuki, 1967), dominant Australopithecus / H. habilis males probably mounted their subordinates and engaged in simulated sexual intercourse. Similar sexual mountings to indicate dominance or submission are employed by gorillas, monkeys, dogs, and humans (Beach, 1965; Eibl-Eisbesfeldt, 2007; Ford & Beach, 1951; Joseph 1993; Wickler, 1973). Females were likely mounted even when they were not in estrus.
SEXUAL SURRENDER: BREASTS AND BUTTOCKS
Like her chimpanzee cousins, the first female hominids probably frequently employed sexual postures as a form of appeasement, so as to reduce male tension, anger, and aggression. When confronted by a high status, dominant male, she would "turn him on" and make him behave more friendly toward her by submitting and bending over coyly, offering her buttocks and sexual favors in order to get him into a more pleasant and agreeable mood. To submit and to display mild fear and to be atrembling with emotion was probably a common Paleolithic turn on.
And, not just her posterior oriented genitals but the hairless double ovoid pattern of her rump likely served as a social-sexual signal of submission. The double hairless region of the chimp buttocks has a breast- like pattern.
A female chimps breasts become swollen when she is pregnant and lactating and the same was likely true of Australopithecus / H. habilis. The swollen breasts of a lactating female ape are little different from those of a modern human female.
Moreover, just as the breasts of other female primates are employed not just for nourishing, but for soothing and comforting the young, and sometimes older males (Carpenter, 1942; Eibl-Eisbesfeldt, 2007; Ford & Beach, 1951; Goodall, 1996, 2010; Wickler, 1973), the female Australopithecus / H. habilis likely employed her breasts in an identical fashion. Over two million years ago our female ancestors were relying on the sex appeal of their swollen breasts to arouse and manipulate the males of their community (Joseph 2000a,b).
In fact, as these hominids were also capable of standing and walking upright, the breasts of the female Australopithecus / H. habilis may have already become increasingly hairless, thus duplicating, in a sense, the hairless and double ovoid shape of her buttocks. Coupled with the submissive and sexual significance of the buttocks (Jolly, 1985; Joseph 1993; Wallis, 1992; Wickler, 1973), once these initial physical changes in the breast area became established this would have enabled the female to display sexually submissive and appeasement appendages which could be easily viewed regardless of her stance or posture. When bending he could see her rump, and when standing, if facing him, he could see her breasts, which soothed the savage beast.
Like the female chimp, female Australopithecus and H. habilis probably had evolved an estrus-like menstrual cycle, becoming sexually receptive for only a few weeks in between successive pregnancies. In general female chimps first enter estrus at about age 10 at which point they give off a strong sex smell and their genitals puff out and turn pink (Goodall, 1996, 2010; Wallis, 1992). Hence, like her primate counterparts, once the Australopithecus / H. habilis female entered estrus, her vaginal region probably turned pink or a bright strawberry red, and puffed out in a posterior direction, while simultaneously secreting sex-related odors.
THE MULTI-ORGASMIC SEXUALLY INSATIABLE FEMALE
As with chimpanzees, if the Australopithecus / H. habilis female was high status and sexually experienced, she probably purposefully attracted a whole retinue of suitors, some of whom probably offered her meat or prolonged grooming in exchange for sex (e.g., Stanford, et al., 1994; Yerkes, 1933). Modern human females commonly exchange sex in return for an expensive date or the reception of gifts.
Like other estrus primates, the Australopithecus / H. habilis female was probably capable of exercising a very limited degree of sexual choice (e.g., Dixson 2003, Lancaster, 1978; Tutin, 1975, 1979), while simultaneously behaving in a promiscuous manner; even if guarded by a male who was supremely dominant. That is, although promiscuous, she probably avoided low status and undesirable males and instead repeatedly had sex with the more popular and dominant males as is typical of Chimpanzees.
Females, when in heat, are sexually insatiable, but not entirely indiscriminate. Due to the high sex drive of the estrus female, the females of many primate and mammalian species behave in a sexually promiscuous, though not completely indiscriminate fashion (Carpenter, 1942, 1964; Fedigan, 1992; Ford & Beach, 1951; Stacey, 1982; Zuckerman, 1932). For example, a female chimp may mate with up to 8 different males in just a few minutes, and she may copulate up to 50 times a day for two weeks or more; though she may also solicit many of the same males while refusing sex to lower status males (Goodall, 1996, 2010).
The estrus female of many species commonly advertise and aggressively solicit male sexual attention (Carpenter, 1934, 1942, 1964; Fedigan, 1992; Goodall, 1990, 1996, 2010; Wallis, 1992; Zuckerman, 1932). As noted, among primates, the genitals may puff out, and turn pink or a bright strawberry red. Moreover, female primates typically bend over and sway their derriere enticingly to draw male sexual attention, even rubbing her genitals in the face of males, and she may approach and repeatedly crouch in front of male after male, frantically soliciting sex. Hence, the Australopithecus / H. habilis female probably did likewise, and like modern (Western/Eastern) females expended considerable effort in advertising her sexuality and to attract male sexual attention. That is, when Australopithecus / H. habilis females became receptive, they probably flaunted their swollen genitals and their sexuality.
Moreover, as with chimpanzees (and modern women), these ancestral hominid females were probably biologically predisposed to seek sex with multiple partners, even risking a severe beating from high status males who were attempting to monopolize her, to do so. Females behaved promiscuously because a single Australopithecus / H. habilis male (like their chimp counterparts) was probably incapable of satisfying her sexually. Female chimps seek multiple sex partners who provide her with multiple orgasms (e.g. Burton, 1971; Goldfoot et al., 1980; Michael et al., 1974).
A male chimp may make 12 to 20 pelvic thrusts, and take no more than just 10 to 15 seconds to ejaculate (Yerkes, 1939). And, like modern human males (Masters & Johnson, 1966), he then goes into a refractory period in which he becomes drowsy and disinterested in sex (Goodall, 1996, 2010; Yerkes, 1939). Obviously, a single male cannot sexually satisfy a multi-orgasmic female who may well require several minutes of thrusting before experiencing her first of several orgasms. She is motivated to have sex repeatedly, and in the case of the female chimpanzee, she may do so 50 times a day. Multiple male sex partners also ensures she will not only become pregnant but that all males will be solicitous of her young as they may be aware of the possibility they are the father.
MULTIPLE ORGASMS & PROMISCUITY
The female chimpanzee, like modern human females and other primates, is capable of having sex with multiple partners, one after the other. She also appears capable of experiencing increasingly pleasurable multiple orgasms (e.g. Burton, 1971; Goldfoot et al., 1980; Michael et al., 1974); each successive orgasm rewarding her for her promiscuity. The ability to experience multiple orgasms promotes promiscuity.
Female primates which experience orgasm are not monogamous (Allen & Lemmon, 1981; Burton, 1971; Chevalier-Skolnikoff, 1974), and few males are biologically capable of providing the stimulation necessary for multiple, or even single orgasms. Males quickly become sexually unresponsive. Females, therefore, are sexually motivated to search for that next orgasm and require the sexual services of additional males.
Primate males such as the rhesus, howler, gorilla, and chimpanzee, typically become unresponsive to the aggressive sexual solicitation of the female after three or four ejaculations in a single day, and cease to respond after three or four days of sexual activity (Carpenter, 1942, 1964; Nadler, 1976; Schaller, 2000, 2010; Yerkes & Elder, 1936; Zuckerman, 1932). In these and other species, the sexual hunger of the female, and her capacity for copulation, completely exceeds that of any single male.
"A single estrus female may satiate, entirely... several sexually vigorous males" (Carpenter, 1942, p. 141). Female chimps, baboons, gorillas, monkeys, and humans are capable of exhausting male and after male without showing any lessening of sexual desire (Carpenter, 1942, 1964; Goodall, 1996, 2010; Ford & Beach, 1951; Zuckerman, 1932).
THE SEXUAL DIFFERENTIATION OF THE LIMBIC SYSTEM
In part the unlimited sexual capacity of the female is related to the sexual differentiation of the limbic system, the hypothalamus and amygdala in particular--structures directly implicated in sexuality including sexual posturing and orgasm (Hart et al., 1985; Lisk, 1967, 1971; Joseph 1990, 1993, 1996, Maclean, 1969, 1990). It is the limbic system which enables a man or a woman to not only become sexually aroused, but which can distinguish between men vs women, and male and female faces and bodies. It is the limbic system which becomes sexually aroused when gazing at or touching a male or female body--depending on if one has a "male" or "female" or "homosexual" limbic system.
Specifically, the female amygdala differs from the male in that it contains more densely packed and smaller neurons (Bubenik & Brown, 1973; Nishizuka & Arai, 1981); and smaller, closely packed neurons fire more easily and more frequently. This is significant as activation of the hypothalamus, for example, triggers and/or increases female sexual behavior including thrusting and sexual posturing even in the absence of a mate (Hart et al., 1985; Lisk, 1967, 1971; Maclean, 1973). The amygdala typically fires up and activates the hypothalamus.
And the massive fiber pathway that connects the right and left amygdala, is 17% larger in women than men (Allen & Gorski, 1993). The tremendous expansion in the fiber pathways linking the two amygdala, provides these sexually active structures an enhanced capacity to communicate and to become mutually excited in the female brain. This also explains why females are generally more "emotional" than males (Joseph, 1996, 2000a,b).
Likewise, activation of the female amygdala can produce clitoral engorgement (Kling & Brothers, 1992; MacLean, 1990; Robinson & Mishkin, 1968), and trigger sexual feelings (Remmillard et al., 1983). Activation of the amygdala can induce pleasurable thoughts and memories of sexual intercourse (Gloor, 1986, 1997), as well as ovulation, uterine contractions, lactogenetic responses, and orgasm (Currier et al., 1971; Freemon & Nevis,1969; Remillard et al., 1983; Shealy & Peel, 1957).
For example, Currier et al (1971, p. 260) described a female temporal lobe seizure patient who was "sitting at the kitchen table with her daughter making out a shopping list" when she suffered a seizure. "She appeared dazed, slumped to the floor on her back, lifted her skirt, spread her knees and elevated her pelvis rhythmically. She made appropriate vocalizations for sexual intercourse such as: It feels so good... further, further."
Moreover, direct electrode activation or seizure-induced stimulation of the amygdala is far more likely to trigger sexual behavior in women and females, as compared to males. Females become more sexually excited and sexually aroused than males, and can stay sexually aroused for significantly longer (Ford & Beach, 1951; Masters & Johnson, 1966).
Therefore, group living female primates, possessing a limbic system organized in the "female pattern" behave like stereotypical females in heat when in estrus, and the same was no doubt true of ancestral human females. It is only with the evolution of the frontal lobes, during the upper Paleolithic, that these limbic lusts came to be inhibited, such that, in consequence, ancestral females became more discreet (Joseph 2000a,b).
PRIMATE PROMISCUITY
When a female chimpanzee or monkey enters estrus, her limbic system becomes highly active, and (unless well guarded), she will frantically solicit male after male for sex, by swaying her buttocks enticingly, or by repeatedly crouching and presenting her genitals for mounting.
She frantically seeks sex with male after male because she is impelled by her limbic system, and as each member of the opposite sex provides her with the possibility of experiencing a single or multiple orgasms. Only after she has been mated by several males in rapid succession does her frantic solicitation comes to a momentary end (Goodall, 1996, 2010; Nishida, 1990); that is, once she has achieved a final explosive orgasm.
A female chimp may copulate 20 to 50 times in a single day. Similarly, when the female rhesus monkey enters estrus, she becomes increasingly sexually aggressive, repeatedly soliciting males, and may copulate 10- or more times a day with 60 or more copulations taking place in a 9 day period.
Likewise, female Bonobos, monkeys, and even harem living gorillas tend to be quite promiscuous (Carpenter, 1934, 1942, 1964; de Waal, 2007; Schaller, 2000, 2010; Zuckerman, 1932). Although female gorillas live in a harem which is dominated by a single silver back male, they will also mate with lower ranking gorillas, often under the watchful eye of the dominant male, that is, after he has mounted her and ejaculated (Schaller, 2000, 2010).
Although males may jealously guard their females, the males of many species, including humans, also enjoy watching females having sex. Viewing estrus females having sex with male after male may have been a "turn on" for 5 million years.
THE MULTI-ORGASMIC FEMALE
It is likely that when the female Australopithecus / H. habilis entered estrus, she also engaged in multiple sexual liaisons, even if dominated and guarded by a single male. And like chimps and other primates, she likely experienced multiple orgasms. The capacity to enjoy and solicit multiple orgasms has been passed down to modern females, who, like her primate counterparts, is capable of having sex with multiple males and experiencing multiple orgasms in a single day.
According to Masters and Johnson (1966) "If a woman who is capable of regular orgasms is properly stimulated after the first climax she is capable of having a second, third, fourth, and even fifth and sixth orgasm within a matter of minutes." And, just as a female chimp may copulate from 20 to 50 times in a day, the human female is capable of having "20 to 50 consecutive orgasms. She will stop only when totally exhausted."
Subsequent orgasms are even more satisfying and pleasurable than the first. Even women who are described as "frigid" by the strictest of standards, are capable of experiencing intense multiple orgasms following short-term therapy (Masters & Johnson, 1966).
Between 14% to 42% of women admit to experiencing multiple orgasms (Darling et al., 1991; Hite, 1976; Kinsey, et al., 1953). The number may well be considerably higher, however, as women are not always truthful about sex. In general, those who admit to experiencing multiple orgasms are more sexually assertive and willing to engage in a variety of sexual activities and tend to feel less restricted by societal norms (Darling et al., 1991). Thus, they are more likely to seek out multiple partners and to expect multiple orgasms. As noted, orgasmic female primates are not monogamous (Allen & Lemmon, 1981; Burton, 1971; Chevalier- Skolnikoff, 1974) as males are generally incapable of completely satisfying them, and this includes the human male.
THE MALE SEXUAL REFRACTORY PERIOD PROMOTES FEMALE PROMISCUITY AND SOCIAL COHESION
As Masters and Johnson (1966) have also pointed out, few men are capable of maintaining an erection long enough to produce multiple orgasms in a woman. Again, this is due to males experiencing a "refractory period" following their own orgasm, which may last minutes or hours before they are capable of getting a second erection.
This male sexual "refractory" trait is also part of his primate heritage, and at one time was quite adaptive as it insured that once satisfied, he would not have the energy or the inclination to interfere with those males still waiting their turn for sexual intercourse. Rather, he could sit back and enjoy the spectacle.
This physical-sexual state of affairs undoubtedly contributed to group stability and cohesion, and provided highly stimulating sexual entertainment on a regular basis. In consequence, females became adapted to being watched and males and females became adapted to watching the sexual exploits of an estrus female.
Therefore, as exemplified by other animals, when the Australopithecus / H. habilis female entered estrus she probably had sex with most (but not all) of the males in camp. This frenzied sexual activity and her uncontrollable sexual desires guaranteed she would become pregnant, and also insured that most males would be solicitous of her young, as there would be some possibility he was the sire.
Over the course of evolution, these same promiscuous traits were passed on to modern females, including the tendency to ovulate (and thus become pregnant) when indulging in increased sexual activity, including aggressive sex such as rape (Brownmiller, 1975; Ford & Beach, 1951; Veith et al., 1983).
Hence, whereas the modern human male is biologically capable of providing only brief periods of sexual stimulation to a single female, the human female is biologically organized to have sex with multiple partners, one after another, and may ovulate (and may become pregnant) if she has repeated or vigorous sexual contact. She is rewarded physiologically for indulging in promiscuous sexual activity, as multiple partners can provide her with multiple orgasms; each successive orgasm becoming increasingly pleasurable and satisfying (Masters and Johnson, 1966). It is because of her unlimited sexual capacity that human female prostitutes can have sex with multiple men, and sometimes dozens of men, in a single day.
Hence, like chimpanzees, most estrus female Australopithecus / H. habilis (unless they were well guarded) were probably able to freely mate with almost every male of their choosing and had sex with multiple high ranking male partners.
Moreover, when several Australopithecus / H. habilis females became receptive simultaneously, it is likely that "a carnival atmosphere prevailed" due to the sexual frenzy that was probably generated (e.g., Goodall, 1990, 1996, 2010). That is, not just every male of the community, but most non-estrus females would gather to watch or participate in the sexual activities, thus generating a high level of sexual excitement.
As is common among many social (and non-social) species, an estrus female will attract numerous males who gather round in the hope of obtaining sexual satisfaction. Estrus females, however, also attract the attention of other females who, like the males may react with sexual arousal (Carpenter, 1942; Chevalier-Skolnikoff, 1974; Fedigan, 1992; Michael et al., 1978; Wallis, 1992). Commonly, however, although sexually aroused, nonestrus females also react with jealousy (Frame et al., 1979; Goodall, 1996, 2010; Mech, 1970).
Because of the emotions she inflames, an estrus female contributes to group formation (attracting males and females). Likewise, jealous feelings, which when experienced by a number of nonestrus females, also generates group cohesion, the uniting of females against a common "enemy." Thus among social living primates, all are welded together by the passions an estrus female inflames. Although males and females may appear to be at cross purposes in this regard, they share in the common goal of preventing an estrus female from mating with other males.
In recent and ancient times women had to be carefully guarded, not just because of her promiscuous nature, but as other males might invade and steal these women. The males would often band together to protect their property, and that property included women. Woman, therefore, contributes to social stability and group cohesion not only among primates, but humans. The same behaviors and attitudes, therefore, probably also characterized Australopithecus / H. habilis social sexual relations.
For example, as is the case with chimps, adult Australopithecus / H. habilis males may have felt compelled not only to compete for her sexual favors, but to guard against male invaders from neighboring colonies -- particularly if several females became receptive simultaneously (e.g. Gagneux et al., 1997; Goodall, 1990, 1996, 2010; Nishida, 1990). That is, the males would bond together in a common purpose which is to maintain access to estrus females. This is accomplished by patrolling their territory and by guarding their estrus female-containing land area.
THE FIRST "ROMANTIC VACATIONS"
As with chimpanzees, when several Australopithecus / H. habilis females entered estrus simultaneously, the males were probably stimulated to band together to patrol the boundaries of their territories to guard against and prevent the theft and rape of their females by foreign males. Among chimps, these patrols are also designed to prevent their estrus females from slipping away to have sex with the males of a neighboring troop (Gagneux et al., 1997; Goodall, 1996, 2010; Nishida, 1990). Although usually successful in preventing foreign males from entering their territories, male chimps are generally unable to prevent their estrus females from sneaking over the border (Gagneux, et al., 1997; Goodall, 1990, 1996, 2010; Pusey et al., 1997). Modern women refer to these escapades as "romantic vacations", or they may explain that they "love to travel" which can also mean: they travel to make love.
Attempts to prevent foreign hominid males from mating with estrus Australopithecine/ H. habilis females also likely failed (e.g, Gagneux et al., 1997); especially if she was young and childless. As is common among chimps, young estrus hominid females would likely sneak off to have sex with the males of a neighboring troop--her swollen pink posterior oriented genitals serving to guarantee her a safe journey as a nonestrus female may be beaten or killed by gangs of chimps from neighboring colonies.
Approximately 50% of young estrus chimpanzee females leave their natal group to have sex with neighboring males (Pusey et al., 1997). In fact, the young Australopithecus / H. habilis female may have left her own group not just because she was feeling sexually adventurous but due to lack of male sexual interest. Adult males might completely ignore her first estrus and her swollen genitals, responding to her instead as if she were still a child (e.g., Goodall, 1990, 1996, 2010).
Thus, initially young estrus Australopithecus and H. habilis females may have repeatedly made visits to neighboring troops in order to engage in one prolonged sex orgy. Like chimps, these females probably only returned to their home range after becoming pregnant and to reestablished a close relationship with their mothers and siblings. In fact, if their mothers became sexually receptive at the same time, they may have wondered off together in search of male sex partners, which again, is common among chimpanzees (Goodall, 1990, 1996, 2010).
MALE SEXUAL POSSESSIVENESS
Troops of Australopithecus / H. habilis were probably dominated by a single male or coalition of two or more males. The most dominant males would probably attempt to maintain exclusive mating rights with those estrus females who were particularly attractive and high status. And, as with chimps, even if a single male was able to obtain a position of absolute power, he probably shared those high status estrus females with a brother or those males whose support he required in order to maintain dominance.
Nevertheless, like her chimpanzee counterpart, even those Australopithecus / H. habilis females who were well guarded probably engaged in numerous clandestine sexual encounters (Gagneux et al., 1997). As male primates, including humans, typically ejaculate after only thirty seconds or a minute or two of inserting his penis, a female need only escape from her "captors" for a few minutes or less, in order to have sex with one or more males.
Be it human or chimpanzee, the female is biologically inclined to mate with numerous males, usually one after another, and may do so even when threatened by physical violence. As described by Goodall (1990, p. 56) even well guarded females will have sex with other males, especially if "the attention of the alpha male and his brother are diverted. Once three other males copulated with their female in quick succession and neither brother noticed." Though if they did notice, the alpha male "would race towards the pair and bash the female for her faithlessness."
THE FIRST "HONEYMOON"
Dominant primate males tend to become interested in an estrus female only when she is fully in estrus and displaying maximum genital swelling. Because the attention of the other males has also been aroused, and as she is becoming increasingly sex crazed, it is simply impossible to guard her at all times and prevent her from mating with the others; that is, unless he spirits her off to some lonely location before anyone else notices her changing condition.
As is the case with chimpanzee, if a high status, dominant Australopithecus / H. habilis male was the first to notice that a particularly attractive, high status female was just beginning to become receptive, he may have attempted to entice, coerce, or beat and brutally force her to accompany him to some isolated spot where they would "honeymoon." Beating and terrifying her, and forcing her to completely and fearfully submit, may have even served as a form of pre-honeymoon foreplay. Sexual force and violence is common among innumerable species, including humans.
For example, if a desirable, estrus female is alone and a high status male chimp is the first to detect her sexual swelling, he will quietly signal his intentions by standing upright and displaying his erect penis (Nishida, 1968, 1970; Goodall, 1996, 2010). In order to coax her into accompanying him to some isolated spot, he may also pick up and menacingly wave a long tree branch in her direction; as if he were holding a whip. If she doesn't respond, the male will leap upon her, beating, pounding, and then dragging her off.
Usually this brutal approach to love making elicits some reluctant compliance, although the female may whimper and cry. Following this brief episode of sexual violence, he will slowly walk away, shaking the branch in her direction, coaxing her to follow. If she becomes reluctant to follow and refuses his demands, he will again attack and brutally force her to follow him to an isolated spot, far away from where the main body of the troop congregates (Goodall, 1996, 2010; Tutin, 1975). Once he achieves his goal this antagonistic, obnoxious, painful bullying ceases and he instead becomes exceedingly gentle and a most attentive lover.
Although chimpanzee "feminists" might decry and protest this male sexual violence, it should be stressed that the female chimp who allows herself to be bullied and dragged off obviously enjoys and is excited by the brutality. No male could force her to accompany him if she truly did not want to go. She need only scream and other males would come running to the sexual rescue (Goodall, 1990, 1996, 2010; Tutin, 1975, 1979).
Indeed, if a male is low status, or if she does not find him sexually exciting, she would completely thwart any attempt to monopolize her affections by not just screaming, but aggressively advertising and calling attention to her changing sexual status (Tutin, 1975, 1979; Wallis, 1992).
Thus, this honeymooning behavior is dependent not only on male persuasion, but the willingness of the female to accompany him. Although she may cry and whimper, if she truly did not wish to be monopolized (or brutalized), she need only scream loudly in order to draw the attention of the other males, who, of course, would not be inclined to allow an estrus female to be spirited away.
Indeed, not only is the female chimpanzee excited and sexually aroused when a high status may bullies, forces, and rapes her, but young women who are "date raped" respond likewise (Ellis, 1989; Wilson & Durrenberger, 1982). Most young woman who are date raped repeatedly fantasize about the experience, and, more importantly, they continue to date and have sex with their "rapists."
HOMO ERECTUS
Australopithecus is a generic name for over a dozen different species of hominids who dwelled throughout parts of Africa and the Far East, from 4.4 to 2 million years ago (Howell, 1997). Moreover, between 3 million and 1.7 million years ago, at least seven different species of hominid coexisted throughout East Africa (and probably the Far East). In general, these hominids appear to have congregated near rivers and lake shores (Leakey, 1994).
Australopithecines flourished for almost 3 million years. The rein of H. habilis was comparatively brief. Homo habilis emerged and disappeared within a span of half a million years, becoming extinct about 1.6 million years ago. Presumably, they were completely replaced (if not eradicated) by H. erectus.
Homo erectus were big, tall, and robust, with thick browridges, large teeth, and bulging shoulder muscles (Day, 1996; Luca 2010; Potts, 1996; Rightmire, 1993). These hominids ranged throughout Africa, Europe, Russia, Indonesia and China from approximately 1.9 million until about 300,000 years ago (Day, 1996; Luca 2010; Potts, 1984, 1996; Rightmire, 1993), with a few isolated populations possibly hanging on in the island of Java, until 27,000 years B.P. (Swisher et al., 1996). Thus, H. erectus emerged almost immediately after H. habilis appeared upon the scene, and may well have been responsible for the demise of this hominid and any remaining Australopithecines.
Presumably, H. erectus is the common ancestor for Neanderthals, Cro-Magnons, and modern humans. But the truth is, no one knows.
FIRE
Early H. erectus was rather small brained, that is, as compared to modern H. sapiens sapiens, with a cranial capacity of about 800 to 900 cc (Tobias, 1971) compared to 1350 cc for modern humans. In all other respects, however, H. erectus was highly intelligent and resourceful, and may well have been constructing camp sites 1.8 million years ago. As with later hominids, these camps were established near rivers and lake shores, and served as semi-permanent as well as transitory sites where stone tools could be constructed and animals butchered (e.g., Isaac, 1971, 1981, 1982; Leakey, 1976, 1978).
Hence, in contrast to chimps and other primates who eat as they range and forage, H. erectus was returning to the camp site with food that had been gathered, scavenged, or slaughtered, so that it could be shared with their compatriots. In general, early H. erectus appears to have lived in groups that consisted of around 50 individuals on average (Clark, 1977).
Camp sites are not the equivalent of a home base. In this regard, the behavior of early H. erectus was merely an antecedent of more complex cognitive activities that this species of humanity would evolve over the ensuing million years. For example, by 1.5 million years ago, H. erectus invented a simple stone technology (the Acheulean), and created the first hand ax. By 700,000 B.P (and perhaps before 1.5 million years B.P.) they had apparently learned how to harness and control fire (Clark & Harris, 1985; Gowlett et al., 1981; Isacc, 1982).
THE FIRST HONEYMOON HOMESTEADS
It was not until about 500,000 years ago, that the first hearths began to appear in China, France, Hungary and elsewhere (Clark & Harris 1985; Rightmire, 1993; Zhang, 1985). This time period and these accomplishments also corresponds to the emergence of late H. erectus (and early archaic H. sapiens), and the construction of crude shelters and the establishment of permanent home bases (Clark & Harris 1985; Potts 1984, 1996; Rightmire, 1993). These later achievements also appear to have coincided with a major change in female sexuality and the evolution of a bigger brain (Joseph, 1993, 2000a,b).
As noted, among chimps, its not uncommon for a dominant male to threaten and physically force a high status estrus female to accompany him away from the troop, and to establish a temporary home base where he provides her with an inordinate amount of attention including meat from any animals he has killed. However, once she ceases to be sexually receptive he loses interest and returns to the troop (Goodall, 1990, 1996, 2010).
Given the association between a temporary home base and estrus, the establishment of permanent home bases and the creation of shelters equipped with fire place and a crude kitchen, around 500,000 B.P., may indicate that the H. erectus female had completely lost her estrus. She became sexually receptive at all times, and developed those secondary sexual characteristics, i.e. permanently enlarged breasts and buttocks, which served to signal her continual sexual availability. This change in her sexual status likely motivated at least some H. erectus males to form a long term mating relationship and to establish a personal and permanent home base (Joseph, 2000a,b).
It is also possible, however, that it was females who first formed the permanent home base, or rather, the first permanent home sites. In either case, it appears that males began living with these females at a home base site on a semi-permanent basis once she became continuously sexually receptive.
THE EVOLUTION OF THE BREASTS
The breasts of the female primate stereotypically become swollen and enlarged when she is nursing. Sucking on swollen breasts has an exceedingly long evolutionary history and has no doubt been a source of satisfaction and pleasure for millions of years.
Female primates may also use her breasts as a signal to her young that she wishes for them to come to her (Wickler, 1973). She may stand upright and display her breasts, or she may raise her arms to maximize the view of the breast in order to get the attention of her young or a potential sex partner.
Baby apes and monkeys will seek the security of the breast. When insecure or frightened they will bury their heads in the mother's chest and take hold of or bite onto the breast and suck while fearfully watching whatever has frightened them (Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1995; Jolly, 1985). When upset or afraid and seeking comfort, adults, including humans, also tend to bury their head in the chest of another adult who may then wrap their arms around them protectively.
The breasts of some female primates are also employed as a sexual signal and erogenous zone. For example, female rhesus monkeys have been observed to pull and suck on their own nipples when they enter estrus and to display them to potential consorts (Carpenter, 1942). She plays with herself and offers the male the chance to do likewise as she finds this activity sexually pleasurable.
In addition, social living primates may become aroused by the female breasts and may fondle and suck on them. For example, the male baboon will lip smack on the female's teats, presumably as a sign of affection or sexual arousal (Ford & Beach, 1951).
FROM BUTTOCKS TO BREASTS
The breasts have been an powerful social-sexual signal for millions of years. Initially, however, the breasts of the Australopithecus / H. habilis female may have served only as a secondary sexual treat. Among female primates, the posterior oriented genitals and derriere serve as the primary sexual advertisements, puffing out and turning pink or bright red when they enter estrus.
The primate breast area is generally covered with hair, and with few exceptions (e.g. the gelada baboon), they only becomes swollen and distended when the female is pregnant or lactating. Among female chimps, these swollen breasts look remarkably like the breasts of the human female, though they are somewhat hairy--though less so when swollen.
As noted, the hairless region of the primate buttocks is patterned in a double ovoid (breast-like) pattern, and even when they are not in estrus, females employ their buttocks to convey sexual appeasement and to signal submission, inviting dominant males to mount them. However, in this regard, males were being exposed to and becoming aroused by not just the swollen buttocks, but swollen buttocks that also display a breast-like pattern. The breasts, or rather a breast-like pattern, likely assumed sexual significance millions of years ago (Morris, 1968), well before the evolution of breasts that remained swollen and distended even when not pregnant or lactating.
Thus we see that breasts, in-themselves, can induce sexual arousal, and that the buttocks and posterior directed genitals, which in primates is the primary sexual appendage, also presents a breast like pattern. It thus appears that over the course of evolution and due to sexual selection, that the breasts also became enlarged, and remained permanently swollen and distended, due perhaps to their powerful effects on males who would selectively breed with females with swollen breasts.
Because the primate (chimpanzee) buttocks presents a breastlike pattern, and because the primate breasts were initially hairy and flat, it appears that at least in part, the human female breasts may have become permanently enlarged secondary to sexual selection, and as they potentially resembled the double ovoid region of the distended buttocks which in turn are employed to signal appeasement as well as sexuality. In other words, over the course of evolution, the breasts became permanently enlarged, and thus a permanent sex symbol to signal that she was continuously sexually receptive, due to their resemblance to the distended estrus buttocks.
Consider, for example, the estrus gelada baboon, who advertises her sexual status via genital swelling and the enlargement of her chest nodules which flush red (Fedigan, 1992; Jolly, 1985). These chest nodules form a necklace-like pattern which mimics the pattern of her rump. Thus we see that not only does the primate buttocks provide a breast-like pattern, but as the primate breasts began to evolve, they also assumed a buttocks-like pattern.
Because baboons generally walk on all fours the chest area is not easily viewed. The buttocks serve as the primary sexual signal in these primates (Kummer, 1971). Similarly, although chimpanzees will sit and can stand as well as walk upright, it is the derriere which is primarily employed for indicating sexual availability and appeasement. In this regard, it can be predicted that as hominids learned to stand upright and walk on two feet, and as the chest area was continually exposed, that the breasts also assumed a primary role in signaling sexuality, one equal to that of the swollen derriere.
Therefore, as hominids evolved the capacity to walk upright, it appears that the importance of the breasts for the purposes of signaling appeasement, submission, as well as sexuality, became emphasized. Thus over the course of human evolution (and due to selective mating patterns, i.e. sexual selection), the breast area became increasingly hairless--thus mimicking the double ovoid pattern of the buttocks--and began to permanently puff out, thus mimicking the sexual swellings of the derriere and dorsaly oriented genitals.
High status male chimps prefer to mate with high status females (and vice versa); that is, females which are the most attractive. It can be presumed that once the breasts began to evolve, those females with the most prominent breasts would have been the most attractive and would have a greater status than her more flat chested female competitors. In consequence, as the more dominant males mated with the females who were attractively endowed, the young they produced would have been more fit (thanks to the inheritance of genes from dominant males), and over time females with larger breasts would have had a superior genetic endowment and would have been more likely to survive and grow big breasts and then breed big breasted daughters. By contrast, flat chested (less attractive) females would produce young less likely to survive as these females were more likely to mate with low status (inferior) males.
Females with breasts eventually became the normal, and these big breasted females had the capacity to sexually arouse a male, regardless of if she was sitting, lying down, or walking away or toward him. Regardless of her posture, males could be sexually aroused by the female body and her rounded buttocks and ripe swollen breasts.
SWOLLEN BREASTS, LACTATION, AND SEXUALITY
Although the first naked breasts may have emerged with the evolution of Australopithecus and H. habilis, they probably did not begin to significantly enlarge in size until much later in human development; an event that likely corresponded to the evolution of full time female sexuality receptivity (Joseph, 2000a,b). Indeed, the human female is the only (noncaptive) female that is continuously sexually receptive, and the only mammal on this planet who possesses breasts which remain enlarged even when she is incapable of becoming impregnated, nursing or producing milk.
The breasts are an obvious sexual signal which invite, solicit, and trigger male sexual arousal. Permanently swollen breasts serve no other purpose other than to advertise the fact that the female who possess them is ready (and possibly willing) to have sex. Thus, when she became capable of having sex at all times, she evolved permanently enlarged swollen breasts to signify her sexual availability.
Permanently swollen breasts serve no other purpose other than to induce sexual arousal, which is why they remain enlarged even when she is not pregnant or lactating. The size of the human female breasts, in fact, have nothing to do with the amount of milk produced by a lactating female. The breasts contain high levels of fat, whereas the milk ducks are stimulated to grow only during pregnancy and sprout from a connective tissue called stroma.
Although it is true that fertility is associated with the development of critical proportions of body fat, and that decreases in fat are associated with decreases in fertility (Frisch, 1988), it is not likely that the female breasts become permanently enlarged as a depository of extra fat in case of famine, as has been suggested by some authors. It is the buttocks, thighs, and stomach area which generally serve as a fat depository. Although a human female requires an increase of about 12% in caloric intake during pregnancy and an additional 15% to 25% while breast feeding (Frisch, 1988), the same is true of other female primates and mammals whose breasts only become enlarged during pregnancy and lactation.
Female primates spend much of their adult life pregnant or lactating, and reproductive activity has high energy costs; much more than the typical human. Hence, even when they are not pregnant female primates "tend to eat more and/or faster, and/or for longer time periods than males... " even when "the male is bigger than the female" (Fedigan, 1992, p. 58). Therefore, if breasts evolved for the purposes of storing fat in case of famine, and did not evolve to signal continuous sexual receptivity, then female primates would have also evolved permanently enlarged breasts.
SWOLLEN BREASTS SIGNAL SEXUAL AVAILABILITY
Permanently enlarged breasts do not serve an adaptive or reproductive function, except as an obvious sexual advertisement. For example, although they are already swollen, the nipples of the human female will grow and stiffen, and the breasts will expand by almost a third when she becomes sexually aroused (Masters and Johnson, 1966) thus signaling her sexual interest. Moreover, her face and nipples may turn red.
Nevertheless, human females not uncommonly artificially exaggerate the size of the breasts so as to emphasize her possible sexual availability and to attract male sex partners. For example, although uncomfortable, cleavage enhancement bras account for up to 40% of bra sales (Forbes, 2010).
Permanently enlarged breasts are not at all adaptive, that is, other than as a sexual signal (e.g., Mayr, 1972; Zahavi, 1975). Permanently enlarged breasts are a source of injury and disease, especially breast cancer, and can induce pain when a woman engages in prolonged running and related physical activity. They also require extra food intake to be maintained.
Not only do enlarged female breasts predispose women to a greater incidence of disease and cancer, but so too do breast implants. It has been conservatively estimated that by 1991 over 2 million women in the United States had breasts implants, and that 100,000 of these women suffered from related diseases and injury, and that an additional 5% were at risk for developing serious adverse health effects (Kessler et al., 1993). In fact, Dow-Corning, Bristol-Myers Squibb and Baxter Healthcare agreed to pay a 3.7 billion dollar settlement to the over 100,000 women who claim to have suffered side effects. Nevertheless, despite the risks, millions of women continue to obtain breast implants, and most women refuse to have their breast implants removed even when they stiffen, become hard, and uncomfortable (Kessler, et al., 1993). Indeed, it has been estimated that an additional 4 million women have had breast implants between 1991 and 1997, and many of these women immediately employed these artificially enlarged breasts to attract sex partners (e.g., Cook et al., 1997). In January of 2011, the FDE announced that since 2000, the number of women with breast implants has increased to 10 million.
That these breast enhancers are employed to advertise sexual availability is exemplified by one recent study in which women with breast implants admitted to having on average 14 different male sex partners (versus an average of 4 for other women) and to have a greater incidence of terminated pregnancies (Cook et al., 1997). Moreover, those with breast implants are significantly more likely to die and color their hair (Cook et al., 1997) thus mimicking the changes in coloration associated with an estrus primate.
As a permanently enlarged breast serves no adaptive function other than serving as a sexual signal, it can be concluded that over the course of human evolution the female breast increased in size so as to signal her continual sexual availability. It can also be assumed that the breasts did not significantly increase in size until she completely lost her estrus and became continually sexually receptive. Again, presumably this great change in her sexuality also coincided with the establishment of the home base and semipermanent shelters; that is, around 700,000 to 500,000 B.P.
THE EVOLUTION OF THE FEMALE BUTTOCKS
It was during the latter stages of H. erectus evolution that the brain became significantly enlarged, doubling in size as compared to Australopithecus (375-440 cc vs 937-1,100 cc), and approaching within 15% of present-day humans (Conroy 1998; Luca 2010; Potts, 1996; Rightmire, 1993; Tobias, 1971).
Because a bigger brain comes in a bigger head, this required a larger birth canal and an increase in the sexual physical differentiation in the size and width of the H. erectus (and modern) female pelvis so as to accommodate the birth of a big brained baby (Day, 1996; Joseph 2000a,b; Potts, 1996; Rightmire, 1993).
Adult brain of Australopithecus vs H. Sapiens
Specifically, with the evolution of a bigger brain and with the transition from Australopithicus to H. habilis to H. erectus, the pelvic opening became longer and more round and ovoid as it expanded from front to back (Day, 1982, Lovejoy, 1988; Sigmon, 1982). As with modern woman, this adaptation likely forced the female erectus' upper legs wider apart and her knees closer together, thus altering her gait and balance, causing her to sway and wiggle her derriere when walking.
Among other female primates and mammals, the buttocks and dorsally oriented genitalia, are employed to assuage aggression, to indicate submission, and as a sign of sexual receptivity when she enters estrus. As noted, among many species of female primate, the dorsally oriented genitals/ vaginal lips turn pink or a bright crimson and balloons outward during estrus, and in fact becomes so huge and distended females have difficulty sitting down.
An
estrus female
chimpanzee (Left). Paleolithic carving of female buttocks (Right)
Moreover, estrus chimps and other primates, including baboons and the gorilla, go to great lengths to focus male attention on their buttocks, which they may flaunt and display by swaying them "enticingly" (Fedigan, 1992; Ford & Beach, 1951; Goodall, 1990, 1996, 2010; MacKinnon, 1979; Nadler, 1976; Wickler, 1973; Wallis, 1992). If a desired male fails to respond, she may approach him by walking backward, and may sway her swollen derriere in his face, at which point she may run away only to repeat her performance if he still does not react (Ford & Beach, 1951; Nadler, 1976; Schaller, 2000, 2010).
For example, when a female chimpanzee, baboon, or gorilla goes into estrus her genitals swell, she gives off a strong sex smell, and she will solicit males by presenting and shaking her swollen bottom while looking "coyly" over her shoulder (Carpenter, 1942; Fedigan, 1992; Schaller, 2000, 2010; Wallis 1992). Or she may approach the recumbent male by walking backwards and will stare at him over her shoulder, puckering her lips "invitingly" while tipping her buttocks in the standard dorsal-ventral mating posture. If he doesn't respond she will rub her genitals against him or will stare at or touch his penis, or may sit on his lap and tease and motivate him to copulate.
Not just female primates but other mammals, including dogs, wolves, porcupines, pigs, and cows will offer the male a view of her rump, and may back into him and shove her genitals in his face (Beach, 1965; Ford & Beach, 1951; Wickler, 1973).
Thus it is evident that the female genitalia and a derriere that is swollen or emphasized are obvious sexual signals which are employed to solicit male sexual attention. Hence, modern human females (young women in particular), being continuously sexually receptive, accentuate and call attention to the derriere by wearing tight pants or skirts and high heels which emphasize the buttocks by puffing it out. When attired in this fashion she is assuming a sexually receptive posture and continually advertising her sexual availability.
Initially, however, the buttocks of early hominids may have been employed primarily to signal appeasement and submission, and may or may not have been perceived as a sexual stimulant per se unless she was in estrus in which case the genitals puffed out and turned pink or red as is customary among chimps and other primates. That is early hominid females probably did not sport an enlarged buttocks except when she entered estrus. In fact, the pelvis and hips of Australopithecus / H. habilis appear to have been similar in size to that of the males, as the brain was not yet sufficiently enlarged so as to require a bigger pelvic birth canal. Hence, except when they were in estrus, the buttocks may not have signified sexuality per se due to their smaller size and due to a lack of sexual dimorphism.
However, with the evolution of the big brain, the H. erectus female evolved a bigger buttocks that was emphasized due to the increase in the size of her pelvis and the orientation of her legs, as well as the evolution of new muscles to accommodate these alterations, all of which puffed out her derriere thus drawing attention to her sexual availability (Joseph, 2000a,b). Her enlarged and prominent derriere, like that of the estrus primate, served as a continual sexual advertisement.
Once the H. erectus female had evolved a permanently enlarged buttocks, she may well have used this appendage to appease male aggression and to solicit sexual attention. She may well have swayed her buttocks "enticingly" in the face of those males who she wished to arouse, or who possessed resources (e.g. meat, a home base) that she wished to obtain-- as is the case with non-human primates and modern females.
Again, this sexual heritage and the sexual potency of the derriere, coupled with her continuous sexual receptivity, explains why modern women accentuate the buttocks through high heels and tight clothes, and in previous centuries, via the bustle, hoop skirts and dresses designed to grossly exaggerate the width of the hips and accentuate the buttocks (Joseph, 2000a,b; Wickler 1973). Through her manner of dress modern woman is emphasizing her buttocks and thus her sexual availability and is attempting to provoke male sexual arousal.
Admittedly, we are forced to speculate as to the timing of these sexual changes. However, since the brain and pelvis significantly increased in size and the first home bases began to appear around 700,000 to 500,000 years ago, and as (temporary) home base formation in chimps is associated with female sexual receptivity, it can be assumed these changes and events coincided with the evolution of full time female sexual receptivity. Her new sexual status was in turn signaled and advertised through the development of swollen breasts and enlarged buttocks, the breasts a mirror image of the "estrus buttocks", and both of which could be viewed when the upright, bipedal female was walking toward or away from the male (Joseph 2000a,b).
Continual sexual receptivity, and her enlarged buttocks and breasts motivated at least some males to form long-term sexual relationships, provide for her and her offspring in return for sex, and to live with her at a permanent home base where she could cook his meals and the meat he brought home.
MONOGAMY, FACE TO FACE MATINGS, AND VAGINAL REORIENTATION
It is possible that once Australopithecus had acquired the ability to walk upright the vaginal canal began to shift from a dorsal to ventral orientation. It was probably during the evolution of the big brained H. erectus, that the vaginal canal completed its reorientation and became ventrally situated. The reorientation of the vagina would have enabled males and females to easily face one another during sexual intercourse, which in turn would have promoted not only interpersonal intimacy, but the establishment of the pair bond.
For example, this vaginal transformation would have served to maximize her pleasure, which she might then associate with a particular man. With face to face mating the male pelvic area is rubbed against her clitori. With the exception of the Bonobo who are more variable, all other primates and non-human animals generally assume a dorsal ventral posture when mating (Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 2007; Ford & Beach, 1951; de Waal, 2007; Goodall, 1990, 1996, 2010; Schaller, 2000, 2010; Wickler, 1973); which is not to im ply that primates do not experiment with different sexual positions. In fact, female chimpanzees, gorillas, baboons, and rhesus macaques, sometimes solicit face-to-face matings, or will twist and turn in order to look at and even kiss the male who is mounting her (Carpenter, 1942, 1964; Fedigan, 1992; Schaller, 2000, 2010). Hence, it is likely that long before faceto- face matings became the norm, that a trend in this direction had already developed among female hominoids and probably early hominids.
As is evident over the course of early development, face-to-face and eye-to-eye contact is exceedingly important in the establishment of the mother-infant bond (Joseph, 1992a,b, 1999, 2000a). Hence, as face-to-face interactions promote long term emotional attachments, it can be assumed that the vaginal reorientation and face to face matings contributed to emotional intimacy and attachment, and thus the development of long term pair bonds. Although a few other species mate for life, and/or limit their seasonal breeding to one mate, with the exception of gibbons, and some New World monkeys, most primates and mammals, and 99% of birds do not form long term monogamous relations (Kleiman, 1977; Stacey, 1982; Wickler, 1973; Wolf, 1975), and they generally mate from the dorsal ventral position.
Hence, it appears that these sexual changes, including face-to-face matings, may have contributed to the formation of emotional attachments, which in turn made it less likely that the female would immediately seek sex with others, all of which contributed to the development of monogamy (or at least serial monogamy). That is, face-to-face matings made it less likely that she would behave in a highly promiscuous fashion particularly in that the human female is more responsive to the human face, and is more adept at correctly perceiving and responding to facial emotional displays (Burton & Levy, 1989; Levy & Heller, 1992). She is also more likely to form long-term emotional attachments such as with her infants and family members.
Moreover, once she had become continually receptive, and continually advertised this fact, this may have motivated at least some H. erectus males to form long term mating relationships and to establish a personal home base, which in turn gave rise to the first "nuclear families." That is, now that he was given access to a continuously receptive female and as his interest was maintained so long as she was sexually receptive, the honeymoon became a semi-permanent relationship as is evident from the establishment of the permanent home base around 500,000 years ago.
THE BIG BRAIN: Sexual, Social, Intellectual, Physical, and Brain Evolution
It was around 500,000 B.P. the first hearth equipped home bases were established in China, France, Hungary and elsewhere (Clark & Harris 1985; Rightmire, 1990; Zhang, 1985). These latter developments implies that at least some groups of H. erectus may have established a rudimentary home life. For example, a home base equipped with a hearth indicates that these hunters and gatherers were returning home with food that was to be cooked and prepared as a group meal.
This great change in diet and food preparation is also evident from an examination of those evolutionary changes which occurred in the teeth, and facial and jaw muscles (Howell, 1997; Potts, 1996; Rightmire, 1990). Food that is cooked is easily chewed and digested and is thus more nutritious. In consequence, large teeth, massive canines, and huge jaw muscles became reduced in size. Improved nutrition and reduction in the size of the lower skull allowed for the brain and upper cranium to increase in size and to evolve new capabilities.
For example, when the need for massive jaw muscles was no longer adap- tive and became reduced in size, the inner skull was able to expand as there was reduced pressure for the outer skull to accommodate bulging jaw muscles. As the size of the inner skull expanded, and due also to the increased capacity to digest protein secondary to cooking (as well as other factors related to gathering and tool making), the brain also expanded. The expansion and evolution of the brain coupled with the reduction in the jaw and improved protein digestion, in turn coincided with and promoted the emergence of increasingly complex hominids, including the first archaic H. sapiens, some 500,000 years ago.
Australopithecus, H. erectus, H. sapiens (modified from Roger Hane).
H. erectus Skull
Brain of Australopithecus, H. erectus. H. sapiens
Therefore, full time female sexual receptivity not only promoted t he the development of the nuclear family, but physi- cal and neurologi- cal evolution. Moreover, because some human males had access to a continuously sexually receptive female who was not only providing him with sex, but a home cooked meal, and coupled with female sexual choice, males were also becoming increasingly "domesticated." And as males became more domesticated, and as the brain increased in size, social life and intellectual functioning became more complex as well.
FEMALE SEXUAL CHOICE AND MALE EVOLUTION
These physical, neurological, intellectual and ensuing social changes may have also been a function of female choice and her tendency to selectively mate with certain types of males. That is, as she was probably more likely to form a long-term mating relationship with a male who could be more easily domesticated, and who also demonstrated intelligence and good social skills, she would have produced male children with similar qualities.
Although promiscuous, female primates are not necessarily indiscriminate. They also display certain preferences in sex partners (Dixson 2003; Fedigan, 1992; Small, 1989; Smuts, 1987; Tutin, 1975; Yerkes, 1933). They will in fact refuse to mate with certain males by lowering their hindquarters or attaching themselves to a more dominant male (Lancaster, 1978; Smuts, 1987; Taub, 1980; Tutin, 1975). As noted by Lancaster (1978, p. 68) "fieldwork publications are filled with reports of females... refusing copulation attempts by keeping their hindquarters lowered."
Female primates prefer high status males and those who offer them meat or prolonged grooming in exchange of sex (Carpenter, 1942; Stanford, et al., 1994; Yerkes, 1933). Likewise, human females prefer high status males who offer them resources (Buss 2003, Cameron et al. 1977; Harrison & Saeed, 1977; Koestner & Wheeler, 1988). Therefore, as is the case with human and non-human primates, the H. erectus female as well as the archaic H. sapiens female, at least those of high status, may have been able to exercise some degree of choice in mating partners (e.g. Reynolds, 1991; Small, 1989; Smuts, 1987; Taub, 1980). By exercising sexual choice, female hominids would have also significantly affected the course of human evolution.
Male Australopithecus and H. habilis may have been almost twice as large as the females. However, the size differential steadily decreased over the course of H. erectus evolution. Simultaneously their brains became larger, which made for a more intelligent but less physically imposing sex partner; at least from the perspective of t he female H. erectus.
It is likely that the decrease in physical size may have been due to sexual selection on the part of continuously receptive females who mated with males who they found more attractive in appearance and more pleasing behaviorally. As female primates tend to avoid dangerous, assaultive, belligerent, domineering, and frightening males (Fedigan, 1992; Herbert, 1968; Michael et al., 1978), and as they also demonstrate sexual preferences, they would have exerted a degree of sexual selection by selectively mating with males who were not as huge or aggressive, and which were less frightening. That is, these females may have avoided the most frightening and assaultive males, and instead formed long term relationships with and allowed themselves to be impregnated by males who were more gentle in appearance and demeanor.
For example, when provided a choice of mating partners (who are caged), primate females avoid releasing large, aggressive and domineering males, but instead select those which are less frightening, and who are more likely to groom, socialize, as well as mate with them (Herbert, 1968; Michael et al., 1978). In fact, among modern human females, there is a definite trend to prefer males whose facial characteristics are more feminine than masculine and which are thus less frightening (Perrett et al., 1998). However, although the modern woman may prefer a more sensitive male as a long term companion, when they ovulate human females also tend to prefer males who are obviously more male and masculine than female in appearance (Buss 2003).
FEMALE CHOICE AND THE MALE PENIS
Just as males may have selectively mated with large breasted females, thus exercising not just sexual choice but sexual selection, such that swollen breasted females became the norm, females may have done likewise in regard to male penis size.
As noted, athough promiscuous, female primates are not necessarily indiscriminate as they also display certain preferences in sex partners (Fedigan, 1992; Small, 1989; Smuts, 1987; Tutin, 1975; Yerkes, 1933) including those who offer them resources. It has also been reported that the majority of female chimpanzees seek to have sex most often with those males with the longest penis, and those who make the greatest number of thrusts per copulation, and who copulate for the longest time (Yerkes, 1933). In this regard, since the human male penis has become huge in size; almost three times that of a chimpanzee, male penis size may also have been "selected for" by choosy females. Indeed, like the female chimp, the human female is aroused by the sight of the male penis (Bancroft, 1980; Friday, 1991) and the bigger the penis, the more aroused she becomes.
Thus, over the course of countless generations, males with larger penises were more likely to successfully mate, and thus the human male penis grew significantly in size. For example, whereas the gorilla dwarfs the human male in stature and weight, the erect gorilla penis is 1.25 inches long on average (3 cm), whereas the erect human male penis is 13 cm (5.4 inches) long . However, female gorillas are not promiscuous. The bonobo and chimpanzee penis is 8 cm long but pencil thin and requires a bone and muscle contraction to achieve erection. Thus, it appears that the human male penis male have nearly doubled in size and width since the time of Australopithecus - H. habilis, secondary competitive pressure and female choice promiscuous species. In fact, just as the female breasts became a signal of sexual receptivity when the human female became fully bipedal and stood upright, human females could also judge which males had the largest penis as males were also standing erect.
Therefore, since female primates exercise sexual choice (e.g. Dixson 2003; Reynolds, 1991; Small, 1989; Smuts, 1987; Taub, 1980) over the course of evolution smaller less frightening males with big sex organs and bigger brains became the norm. In fact, given her continual sexual receptivity, and her ability to accentuate her sexuality through cosmetics (Joseph, 2000a) the H. erectus/archaic H. sapiens female was probable able to attract a whole retinue of suitors and could repeatedly chose among the more intelligent males who were offering her food, grooming, and resources in exchange for sex, while simultaneously denying sex to those who males were frightening, stupid, who sported a small penis, and who she did not find attractive (e.g. Herbert, 1968; Lancaster 1978; Michael et al., 1978; Perrett, et al., 1998; Tutin, 1975). Indeed, as is common among chimpanzees (de Wall, 2007; Goodall, 1986) she may have been able to motivate the males of her choice and those vying for her affections, to protect her from those huge, brutal, violent males who frightened her.
FEMALE CHOICE AND SPERM SELECTION
Given female choice and her tendency to avoid mating with those who were huge and frightening while selectively mating with those who would groom, feed, protect and provision her, and especially those males who were high status and good hunters, over the course of evolution males became smaller, more sociable, more intelligent, and less likely to dominate large groups of females through violence, terror, and aggression.
Moreover, even if forced to mate with males who were not of her liking, these females may have been able to reject the sperm and avoid becoming pregnant. That is, through sperm selection made possible by control of the vaginal and uterine muscles, the female could determine which male would have the honor of actually impregnating her.
Although this capacity has almost been lost to "modern" women due to the fact that they spend so much of their lives sitting which weakens these muscles, females nevertheless retain the potential to manipulate and reject the sperm that has been sprayed into their body (Baker & Bellis, 1995). This is accomplished through control over uterine contractions which can induce "flow back" and thus sperm ejection, vs "upsuck" which literally causes the sperm to be drawn into the uterus. Thus, although mating with numerous males, the female can exert choice at the level of sperm.
Through selective mating with high status males who were more sociable and more to her liking, those males who were twice her size were gradually replaced by more sociable males with big penises and bigger brains, including those seeking to form (what they believed to be) exclusive sexual relations. Males were becoming domesticated.
THE EVOLUTION OF COSMETICS: FEMALES ARE ATTRACTED TO MALE ORNAMENTATION